Encyclopedia:
Indonesia,
Portal:Indonesia/Indonesia news,
Portal:Indonesia/Indonesia/Categories,
History of Indonesia,
Geography of Indonesia,
Demographics of Indonesia,
Politics of Indonesia,
Economy of Indonesia,
Communications in Indonesia,
Transportation in Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the
Republic of Indonesia (
Indonesian:
Republik Indonesia), is a
nation of 17,508 islands[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Indonesia.pdf] in the
South East Asian Archipelago, making it the world's largest archipelagic state. Its capital is
Jakarta. Indonesia is bordered by the nations of
Papua New Guinea,
East Timor, and
Malaysia. With a population of over 200 million, it is the world's fourth
most populous country and the most populous
Muslim-majority nation.
The Indonesian Archipelago, home of the
Spice Islands, has been an important trade destination since early
Chinese sailors began to find profit in the
spice trade during ancient times. Much of Indonesia's history has been influenced by the many foreign powers that have been drawn to the archipelago by its wealth of natural resources. These have included
Classical Hindus and
Buddhists from
India,
Muslim traders in
medieval times, and
Europeans during the
Age of Exploration, who fought for monopolization of the spice trade. Indonesia was
colonized by the
Dutch for over three centuries; however, the nation declared its
independence in 1945, which was internationally recognized four years later. Since then, the region has had a turbulent history, including political instability and corruption, periods of rapid economic growth and decline, environmental catastrophe, and a recent
democratization process.
Indonesia is a
unitary state consisting of numerous distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups spread across its numerous islands. The modern borders of Indonesia are based upon those of the Dutch East Indies colony, rather than on any preconceived notion of unity. However, a shared history of colonialism, rebellion against it, a national
Indonesian language, and a religious majority of Islam help to define Indonesia as a state. Indonesia's national motto,
Bhinneka tunggal ika (derived from
Old Javanese for
unity in diversity), reflects the amalgamation of the country's myriad cultures, languages, and ethnic groups. However, sectarian tensions have threatened political stability in some regions, leading to violent confrontations and the secession of
East Timor.
Etymology
The name
Indonesia was derived the from
Greek indus, meaning India, and
nesos, meaning islands.
[cite book]
| last = Tomascik
| first = T
| coauthors = Mah, J.A., Nontji, A., Moosa, M.K.
| title = The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas - Part One
| publisher = Periplus Editions Ltd.
| date = 1996
| location = Hong Kong
| id = ISBN . Dating back to the
eighteenth century, the name far predates the formation of the Indonesian nation.
[cite news ]
| last = Anshory
| first = Irfan
| coauthors =
| title = Asal Usul Nama Indonesia
| publisher = Pikiran Rakyat
| date = 2004-08-16
| url = http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm
| accessdate = 2006-10-05 id In
1849, an
English etymology expert, George Samuel Windsor Earl, writing in an annual science journal,
[cite journal]
| last = Earl
| first = George Samuel Windsor
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations
| journal = Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA)
| volume =
| issue =
| pages =
| publisher =
| date = 1849
| url =
| accessdate = suggested that the
Hindia or Malaya archipelago choose a distinct name, suggesting either
Indunesia or
Melayunesia, although he favoured the latter.
In a concurrent article in the same publication,
[cite journal]
| last = Logan
| first = James Richardson
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations
| journal = Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA)
| volume =
| issue =
| pages =
| publisher =
| date = 1849
| url =
| accessdate = another etymologist, James Richardson Logan, proposed using
Indunesia over
Melayunesia. He also changed the letter "u" to "o" to improve the pronunciation.
The first Indonesian to use the name was
Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a
press bureau with the name
Indonesisch Pers-bureau in the
Netherlands.
History
Main|History of
thumb|220px|left|Dried berries of Cubeb or Java PepperFossil evidence suggests the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited by
Homo erectus,
[cite journal]
| last = Pope
| title = Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology
| journal = Annual Review of Anthropology
| volume = 17
| pages = 43-77
| publisher = Annual Review
| date = 1988
| accessdate = cited in cite book
| last = Whitten
| first = T
| coauthors = Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A.
| title = The Ecology of Java and Bali
| publisher = Periplus Editions Ltd
| date = 1996
| location = Hong Kong
| pages = 309 - 312
| id = popularly termed the
Java Man. Estimates of its existence range from 500,000
[cite journal]
| last = Pope
| first = G
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae
| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
| volume = 80
| issue = 16
| pages = 4,988 - 4992
| publisher = National Academy of Sciences
| date = August 15, 1983
| url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/16/4988
| accessdate =
cited in cite book
| last = Whitten
| first = T
| coauthors = Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A.
| title = The Ecology of Java and Bali
| publisher = Periplus Editions Ltd
| date = 1996
| location = Hong Kong
| pages = 309
| id = to 2 million years ago.
[cite journal]
| last = de Vos
| first = J.P.
| coauthors = P.Y. Sondaar,
| title = Dating hominid sites in Indonesia
| journal = Science Magazine
| volume = 266
| issue = 16
| pages = 4,988 - 4992
| publisher = The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
| date = 9 December 1994
| url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf
| doi = 10.1126/science.7992059
| accessdate =
cited in cite book
| last = Whitten
| first = T
| coauthors = Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A.
| title = The Ecology of Java and Bali
| publisher = Periplus Editions Ltd
| date = 1996
| location = Hong Kong
| pages = 309
| id = The modern peoples of
Malay people origin are descendants of immigrants from mainland South East Asia beginning around 6,000 years ago. Ideal agricultural conditions, and in particular the mastering of
wet-field rice cultivation as early as the seventh century BC, allowed villages, towns and eventually small kingdoms to flourish by the first century AD. Around the same time, trade was established between both
India and
China, fostered by Indonesia’s strategic sea lane position which would continue to be one of the most important influences on the country’s history.
It was upon this trade, and the
Hinduism and
Buddhism that was brought with it, that the
Sriwijaya kingdom flourished from the 7th century AD. It became a powerful naval state, which grew wealthy on the international trade it controlled through the region until its decline in the 12th century. During the 8th and 10th centuries AD, the agriculturally-based Buddhist
Sailendra and Hindu
Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java with great monuments built, including
Borobudur and
Prambanan respectively. The Hindu
Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in 1294, and under its military commander
Gajah Mada stretched over much of modern day Indonesia. This period is referred to as a Golden Age in the country’s history.
[cite web]
| title = Javanese Influence
| publisher = Balix
| url = http://www.balix.com/handbook/chapters/about_bali/history_java.html
| accessdate = 2006-10-05 Arab traders first brought Islam to Indonesia in the late 12th century, establishing settlements in the
Aceh region. It spread across the Indonesian archipelago, following trade routes. Rather than a violent conquest, it was, for the most part, peacefully laid over and mixed with existing cultural (and even religious) influences to form what is still the predominant form of
Islam in Indonesia today, particularly in Java.
thumb|120px|left|The logo of the Amsterdam Chamber of the VOC.European traders first arrived in the early
sixteenth century seeking to monopolize the sources of
nutmeg,
cloves, and
cubeb pepper in
The Moluccas. In 1506 the
Portuguese, led by
Ferdinand Magellan, were the first Europeans to arrive in Indonesia; the Dutch and
British followed. The Dutch became the dominant traders in Indonesia, establishing the
Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602. The VOC, however, was dissolved in 1798 and the government of the Netherlands established the
Dutch East Indies as a fully-fledged colony.
The
Dutch colonial presence in Indonesia existed in various forms for over 300 years until the
Japanese occupation in the
second World War.
[Sejarah Indonesia: An Online Timeline of Indonesian History, Gimonca.com, web site ][Moser, John (2005). [http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=654 "Turning the Tide in the Pacific, 1941-1943"">http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah02.shtml "1500 to 1670: Great Kings and Trade.][Moser, John (2005). [http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=654 "Turning the Tide in the Pacific, 1941-1943"]. During the war,
Sukarno, a popular leader of the
Indonesian Nationalist Party, cooperated with the occupying Japanese with the intention of strengthening the independence movement.
[Toer, Pramoedya Ananta (1999). http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990823/sukarno1.html "Sukarno".] On
August 17 1945, Sukarno, with the Japanese organized National Committee of Independence (BPUPKI) unilaterally declared
Indonesian independence.
[Smitha, Frank E. http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch23t.htm "Independence for Indonesia".] Sukarno then became the first
president, while
Muhammad Hatta became the
vice-president. Over the next four years, the Netherlands mounted
military campaigns to reoccupy Indonesia, but in the face of international pressure acknowledged Indonesian independence in 1949.
[ http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-inde.htm "Indonesian War of Independence" Dutch wanted to reoccupy Indonesia]thumb|right|220px|[Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president]
Increasing tensions between the
Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) and the Indonesian military culminated in an abortive coup on
30 September 1965 which saw six top-ranking generals murdered in
circumstances that remain contentious even today. A quick counter-coup led by
Major General Suharto resulted in an violent anti-communist purge centered mainly in Java and Bali. Hundreds of thousands were killed
[Roosa, John and Nevins, Joseph (2005) http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=viewArticle&code=ROO20051105&articleId=1187 "40 Years Later: The Mass Killings in Indonesia"] - some sources say as many as a million - in an event that went largely unreported in international Politically, Suharto capitalized on Sukarno's gravely weakened position in a drawn out power play between the two, and by March 1967 had
maneuvered himself into the presidency. Commonly referred to as the
New Order,
[The Library Congress. http://www.indonesiaphoto.com/content/view/102/46/ "History of Indonesia #10".] Suharto's administration encouraged major foreign
investment in Indonesia, which was to become a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.
From
1997 to
1998, however, Indonesia became the country hardest hit by the
East Asian Financial Crisis, aggravating popular discontent with Suharto, who already faced accusations of
corruption, and further inflaming
popular protests in early 1998.
[Parker, Randall (2004). http://www.parapundit.com/archives/002017.html "Suharto Of Indonesia Embezzled Most Of Any Modern Leader".] On
21 May 1998, President Suharto announced his resignation, ushering in the
Reformasi era in Indonesia.
[Parker, Randall (2004). http://www.parapundit.com/archives/002017.html "Suharto Of Indonesia Embezzled Most Of Any Modern Leader".][Hefner, Robert W (2000). http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/csrpl/RINVol3No1/east_timor.htm "Religious Ironies in East Timor".] A wide range of reforms have been introduced since then, including Indonesia's first
direct presidential election in
2004, but progress has been slowed by political and economic instability, social unrest, terrorism and recent natural disasters. Although relations between different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent, even violence, remains a problem in some areas. Political settlements relating to separatism issues have been achieved in
Aceh and
East Timor, the latter having seceded from Indonesia in
1999.
Government and politics
Structure and affiliations
right|250px|thumb|People's Representative Council building in JakartaIndonesia is a
republic and a
unitary state with a
presidential system and power concentrated with the national government. The
President of Indonesia is directly elected for a term of five years, and is the
head of state,
commander-in-chief of the
Indonesian armed forces, and responsible for domestic governance, policy-making and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature.
The highest legislative body is the
People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), an umbrella organization that consists of the
People's Representative Council (DPR), and the
Regional Representatives Council (DPD). The DPR is the lower house and its 550 members are elected for five-year terms on a
proportional representation basis from each of Indonesia's 33 provinces. The DPD is a new chamber coming into effect in 2004 and is charged with managing regional representation within the central national government.
[Indonesian Embassy, China, http://www.indonesianembassy-china.com/indoR.htm Regional Representatives Council] Each province elects 4 members on a non-partisan basis. The DPD does not have, however, the revising powers of an upper house such as the United States Senate, rather it is restricted to bills concerning matters of regional management.
The Supreme Court is the highest level of the judicial branch. Its judges are appointed by the president. Each province has its own High Court.
Indonesia is a founding member of the
Association of South East Asian Nations,
[cite web|title=Country Profile Indonesia: Great Archipelago of Diversity|last=BERNAMA|url=http://webevents.bernama.com/events/aseansummit/prof_indonesia.php|work=BERNAMA.com: 11th Annual ASEAN Summit 2005|publisher=BERNAMA|date=6 Dec ] and is therefore a member of both
ASEAN+3 and the
East Asia Summit. Since the 1980s, Indonesia has worked to develop close political and economic ties between South East Asian nations, and is influential in the
Organization of Islamic Conference. During Suharto's presidency, Indonesia built strong relations with the
United States,
[cite web|title=Online Transcript|last=Wiryono|first=S|url=http://www.kbri-canberra.org.au/archives/1996/101096.html|work=Address by Indonesian Ambassador to Australia to Course 35/96 of the RAN Staff College Sydney|publisher=Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, ] while it had difficult relations with the
People's Republic of China due to Suharto's anti-communist policies and domestic tensions with the Chinese ethnic community.
[cite web|title=Discrimination against Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia|last=Indonesian Legal Studies Foundation|first=|url=http://www.hurights.or.jp/asia-pacific/043/focus43.pdf|work=FOCUS Asia=Pacific, Vol.43, pp2-3|publisher=Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center (HURIGHTS OSAKA)|date=March ][cite web|title=Discrimination against Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia|last=Human Rights Watch|first=|url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/1998/02/11/indone8880.htm|work=|publisher=HRW.org, New York|date=2 Nov ]Major contemporary issues
Indonesia was internationally condemned for its
invasion and annexation of
East Timor in the 1970s,
[cite web| last = Burr| first = W.| authorlink =|coauthors = Evans, M.L.| title = Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975:New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto| work = National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62| publisher = National Security Archive, The George Washington University, Washington, DC| date = 6 Dec 2001| url =http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62| format =| doi = | accessdate = ] for alleged human rights violations throughout the subsequent occupation, and for the military support of violent pro-integration militias following the 1999 independence referendum.
[cite web]
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = International Religious Freedom Report
| work = Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
| publisher = U.S. Department of State
| date = 2002-10-17
| url = http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2002/13873.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-09-29 Under the administration of President Yudhoyono, a ceasefire agreement was reached with
separatists in Aceh in 2006, and in Papua there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses.
[cite news ]
| last = Lateline TV Current Affairs
| first =
| coauthors =
| title = Sidney Jones on South East Asian conflicts
| work = TV PROGRAM TRANSCRIPT, Interview with South East Asia director of the International Crisis Group
| pages =
| language =
| publisher = Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC)
| date = 2006-04-20
| url = http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/content/2006/s1620483.htm
| accessdate = [cite journal]
| last = International Crisis Group
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Papua: Answer to Frequently Asked Questions
| journal = Update Briefing
| volume =
| issue = No. 53
| pages = 1
| publisher = International Crisis Group
| date = 2006-09-05
| url = http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/asia/indonesia/b53_papua_answers_to_frequently_asked_questions.pdf
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = left|220px|thumb|National flags at the explosion site in Kuta, BaliTerrorism, linked to extreme
Islamism, has been a critical challenge to the Indonesian Government since 2000. The
most deadly attack came in 2002, killing 202 people, including 164 international tourists, in the resort town of
Kuta, Bali.
[cite news ]
| last =
| first =
| coauthors =
| title = Commemoration of 3rd anniversary of bombings
| work = AAP
| pages =
| language = English
| publisher = The Age Newspaper
| date = 2006-12-10
| url = http://www.theage.com.au/news/war-on-terror/services-to-honour-victims-of-2002-bali-bombing/2005/10/12/1128796537208.html
| accessdate = These and subsequent attacks in Jakarta and Bali have been linked to
Al-Qaeda [cite web]
| last = Wilson
| first = Chris
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Indonesia and Transnational Terrorism
| work = Foreign Affairs, Defense and Trade Group
| publisher = Parliament of Australia
| date = 2001-10-11
| url = http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/CIB/2001-02/02cib06.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-10-15 , and combined with travel warnings issued by a number of countries, have severely damaged the country’s important
tourist industry and the economy's foreign investment prospects.
[cite web]
| last =| first =| authorlink =| coauthors =| title = Travel Warning: Indonesia| work =| publisher = US Embassy, Jakarta| date = 2005-5-10| url =http://www.usembassyjakarta.org/news/trv_warning02.html| format =| doi =| accessdate = In cooperation with other countries, the Government has achieved substantial success in apprehending and prosecuting the perpetrators and also towards fracturing their organizations,
[cite web]
| last = Cambrensis
| first = Giraldius
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Australia: Islamist Bomb Threats Taken Seriously
| work =
| publisher = Western Resistance
| date = 2006-03-08
| url = http://www.westernresistance.com/blog/archives/002708.html
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = [cite web]
| last = Huang| first = Reyko| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Priority Dilemmas: U.S. - Indonesia Military Relations in the Anti Terror War| work = Terrorism Project| publisher = Center for Defense Information| date = 2002-23-05| url = http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/priority.cfm| format =
| doi = | accessdate = although terrorism is expected to be a major issue for Indonesia in the foreseeable future.
Administrative divisions
Main|Provinces of Indonesia|Subdivisions of
right|thumb|320px|Map of the provinces of IndonesiaIndonesia currently has 33
provinces, three of which have special status. One is a special capital region. The provinces are subdivided into
regencies and
cities, which are further subdivided into
subdistricts.
Indonesian provinces:
{|
|- valign="top"
|
#
Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam*
#
North Sumatra (
Sumatera Utara)
#
West Sumatra (
Sumatera Barat)
#
Riau#
Riau Islands (
Kepulauan Riau)
#
Jambi#
South Sumatra (
Sumatera Selatan)
#
Bangka-Belitung#
Bengkulu#
Lampung#
Jakarta*
#
Banten#
West Java (
Jawa Barat)
#
Central Java (
Jawa Tengah)
#
Yogyakarta*
#
East Java (
Jawa Timur)
#
West Kalimantan (
Kalimantan Barat)
|
- Central Kalimantan (Kalimantan Tengah)
- South Kalimantan (Kalimantan Selatan)
- East Kalimantan (Kalimantan Timur)
- Bali
- West Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Barat)
- East Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Timur)
- North Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara)
- Gorontalo
- Central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah)
- West Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat)
- South Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan)
- South East Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tenggara)
- Maluku
- North Maluku (Maluku Utara)
- West Irian Jaya (Irian Jaya Barat)
- Papua*
|
|}
(*) indicates the provinces with special status.
The special territories have more autonomy from the central government than other provinces, and so have unique legislative privileges: the Acehnese government has the right to create an independent legal system, and instituted a form of
sharia (Islamic Law) in 2003;
[cite paper]
| author = Kassim
| title = Yang Razali
| version =
| publisher = IDSS Commentaries
| date =
| url = http://www.ntu.edu.sg/IDSS/publications/Perspective/IDSS072005.pdf#search=%22aceh%20syariah%20independent%22
| format =
| accessdate = 2006-10-05 Yogyakarta remains a sultanate whose sultan (currently the widely popular Sri Sultan
Hamengkubuwono X) is the territory's de facto governor for life.
[cite web]
| last = Negoro
| first = Suryo S.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Arts, Cultures, Rituals and Other Information of Puro Pakualaman
| work = Joglosemar
| publisher =Sangga Sarana Persada
| date = 1998
| url = http://www.joglosemar.co.id/pka_info1.html
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-10-05 Papua (formerly called
Irian Jaya) has had special status since 2001.
[cite news ]
| last = Dursin
| first = Richel
| coauthors = Kafil Yamin
| title = Another Fine Mess in Papua
| work = Editorial
| pages =
| language =
| publisher = The Jakarta Post
| date = 2004-11-18
| url = http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm
| accessdate = 2006-10-05 The special capital region is
Jakarta. Though Jakarta is a single city, it is administered much as any other Indonesian province. For example, Jakarta has a governor (instead of a mayor), and is divided into several sub-regions with their own administrative systems.
East Timor was occupied by Indonesia from 1975 following a military invasion, until Indonesia relinquished its claims in 1999 after years of bitter fighting against East Timor
guerrillas and abuses by Indonesian military forces against the East Timorese civilians.
[cite news ]
| last = Miller
| first = John M.
| coauthors =
| title = Indonesian General on Trial in U.S. Court
| work =
| pages =
| language = English
| publisher = Timor Post
| date = 2001-04-03
| url = http://www.etan.org/news/2000a/suit/coverag2.htm
| accessdate = 2006-10-05 Following a period of
transitional administration by the UN, it became an
independent state in 2002.
Geography
thumb|right|320px|Map of Indonesia - click for high resolution versionMain|Geography of
Indonesia's
18,108 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited,
[cite web]
| title = Indonesian Geography
| work = U.S. Library of Congress
| publisher = Country Studies - Indonesia
| url = http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/28.htm
| accessdate = are scattered around the
equator, giving the country a
tropical climate. The five main islands are
Java,
Sumatra,
Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of
Borneo),
New Guinea (shared with
Papua New Guinea) and
Sulawesi. Indonesia borders Malaysia on the island of Borneo (
Indonesian, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea and East Timor on the island of
Timor. The capital Jakarta is the nation's largest city, followed by
Surabaya,
Bandung,
Medan, and
Semarang.
thumb|220px|left|Mount Bromo,
East Java: Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest">[Mount Semeru and
Mount Bromo,
East Java: Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest]
At 1,919,440
km² (
741,050 mi²), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in terms of land area, after
Saudi Arabia.
[cite web]
| last = Central Intelligence Agency
| title = Rank Order Area
| work = The World Factbook
| publisher = US CIA, Washington, DC
| date = 2006-10-17
| url = https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html
| accessdate = Its population density is 134.39 people per square kilometer, 79th in the world.
[cite web]
| title = Population density - Persons per km² 2006
| work = CIA world factbook
| publisher = Photius Coutsoukis
| date = 2006
| url = http://www.photius.com/rankings/geography/population_density_2006_1.html
| accessdate = 2006-10-04 Its location on the edges of three
tectonic plates, specifically the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian plates, makes Indonesia a site of frequent
earthquakes and the resulting
tsunamis. Indonesia has at least 66
volcanoes,
[Topinka, USGS/CVO, 2001; base map modified from CIA map, 1997; volcanoes from: Simkin & Siebert, 1994] including
Krakatoa, located between Sumatra and Java, and famous for its massive 1883 eruption.
Ecology
Partly due to its vast size and tropical archipelago make-up, Indonesia has the world's second highest level of
biodiversity (after
Brazil) with its
flora and
fauna species a mixture of
Asian and
Australasian species.
[cite web]
| title = Indonesia’s Natural Wealth: The Right of a Nation and Her People
| publisher = Islam Online
| date = 2003-05-22
| url = http://www.islamonline.net/English/Science/2003/05/article13.shtml
| accessdate = 2006-10-06 Once linked to the Asian mainland, the
Greater Sunda Islands (Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the
tiger,
rhinoceros,
orangutan,
elephant, and
leopard, although once abundant and distributed as far east as Bali, have dwindled drastically in number and distribution. Sumatra and Kalimantan still contain vast forests, predominantly Asian in nature, but they are being logged at rapid rates, while the smaller but densely populated Java and Bali are now predominantly developed for habitation and agriculture. Originally part of the Australian landmass, the highlands of Papua enclose a number of unique environments, including over 600 bird species, with fauna closely related to Australia’s.
[cite web]
| title = Indonesia
| publisher = InterKnowledge Corp.
| url = http://www.geographia.com/indonesia/indono02.htm
| accessdate = 2006-10-06 Sulawesi,
[cite book]
| last = Whitten,
| first = T.
| coauthors = Henderson, G., Mustafa, M.
| title = The Ecology of Sulawesi
| publisher = Periplus Editions Ltd.
| date = 1996
| location = Hong Kong
| id = ISBN Nusa Tenggara and Maluku,
[cite book]
| last = Monk,
| first = K.A.
| coauthors = Fretes, Y., Reksodiharjo-Lilley, G.
| title = The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku
| publisher = Periplus Editions Ltd.
| date = 1996
| location = Hong Kong
| id = ISBN having been long separated from the continental landmasses, have developed their own unique flora and fauna.
thumb|220px|right|The critically endangered Sumatran Orangutan, a great ape
endemic to Indonesia]
Surrounding a vast number of islands with over 80,000km of coastline, the warm, tropical seas of Indonesia also boast a high level of biodiversity,
corresponding with a diverse range of
ecosystems including
beaches,
sand dunes,
estuaries,
mangroves,
coral reefs,
sea grass beds,
coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.
The British naturalist
Alfred Wallace described a dividing line between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species,
[cite book]
| last = Severin
| first = Tim
| title = The Spice Island Voyage: In Search of Wallace
| publisher = Abacus Travel
| date = 1997
| location = Great Britain
| id = ISBN 0-349-11040-9 Known as the
Wallace Line, it runs along the edge of the
Sunda shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep
Lombok Strait, between
Lombok and
Bali. West of the line, the flora and fauna are more Asian, and as one travels east from Lombok they are increasingly Australian. Wallace described not only the transition between Asian and Australasian species, but also numerous species unique to the surrounding area,
[cite book]
| last = Wallace
| first = A.R.
| title = The Malay Archipelago | publisher = Periplus Editions
| date = 2000 (originally 1869)
| id = ISBN , which is now known as
Wallacea.
As a highly populous country part way through a rapid
industrialisation process, Indonesia faces some grave ecological issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.
[cite paper]
| author = Jason R. Miller
| title = Deforestation in Indonesia and the Orangutan Population
| publisher = TED Case Studies
| date = 1997-01-30
| url = http://www.american.edu/TED/orang.htm
| accessdate = These issues include large-scale
deforestation, much of it
illegal, and related wildfires which cause
heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia,
Malaysia and
Singapore, over-exploitation of marine resources, and environmental problems associated with rapid
urbanisation and
economic development such as air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.
threatens the survival of many indigenous and
endemic species, including 140 species of
mammals identified by the
World Conservation Union (IUCN) as
threatened and 15 identified as critically
endangered, including the
Sumatran Orangutan.
[ cite web]
| last = Massicot
| first = Paul
| title = Animal Info - Indonesia
| publisher = Animal Info - Information on Endangered Mammals
| url = http://www.animalinfo.org/country/indones.htm
| accessdate = Economy
thumb|220px|right|[Indonesian rupiah]
Main|Economy of
Indonesian
Gross Domestic Product for 2005 was US$287bn,
[cite web]
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Indonesia Data Profile
| work = http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20523710~hlPK:1365919~menuPK:64133159~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html World Development Indicators 2005
| publisher = http://www.worldbank.org/ The World Bank
| date =
| url =http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=IDN
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = with
per capita GDP (
PPP) being US$3,600 ranking Indonesia 154th in the world.
[cite web]
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title =Rank Order - GDP - per capita (PPP)
| work =https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ The World FactBook
| publisher = CIA
| date = 30 November, 2006
| url =https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = Major agricultural products include
palm oil,
rice,
tea,
coffee,
spices and
rubber and major industries include
Petroleum and
natural gas,
textiles,
apparel, and
mining.
Bank Indonesia, the country's
central bank was established in 1974 and received its independent central bank status in 1999.
[Banking With The Poor Network http://www.bwtp.org/arcm/indonesia/II_Organisations/Supporting_Organisations/Bank_Indonesia.htm Bank Indonesia overview] In 2005, the industrial production growth rate was 4.8% per annum, ranking 73rd in the world.
[Indonesia - The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html] Major trading partners include
Japan, the
United States,
Singapore,
Malaysia, and
Australia.
The country has extensive natural resources outside Java, including
crude oil,
natural gas,
tin,
copper, and
gold. Indonesia is the world’s largest
LNG producer, exporting about 20% of the world’s total volume in 2002.
[Energy Information Administration 2004, http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/global/exporters.html The Global LNG Market, LNG Exporters Washington DC, viewed 17 Sept 2006] Apparently, in 2005, the income from exports was larger than the import's expenditure with $83.64 billion and $62.02 billion respectively. Indonesia's imports commodities include
machinery and
equipment,
chemicals,
fuels, and
foodstuffs.
Despite being the only East Asian member of
OPEC, Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment.
[cite paper]
| title = Indonesia
| publisher = APEC Energy Demand and Supply Outlook 2006
| date = Indonesia
| url = http://www.ieej.or.jp/aperc/2006pdf/Outlook2006//ER_Indonesia.pdf#search=%22indonesia%20fuel%20production%20decrease%22
| accessdate = 2006-10-06 As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil and had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing
US$ 7 billion in 2004.
[cite news ]
| last = Guerin| first = B.| coauthors = | title = Tigers count the cost of easing fuel subsidies| work = Asia Times Online| pages = | language = English| publisher = Asia Times Online Ltd, Bangkok| date = Mar 10, 2005| url = http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/GC10Ae04.html| accessdate = The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages.
[cite news ]
| last = BBC News| first = | coauthors = | title = Indonesia plans to slash fuel aid| work = | pages = | language = English| publisher = BBC, London| date = 31 August 2005| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4200100.stm| accessdate = In order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens. The government has stated to reduce subsidies, aiming to reduce the budget deficit to 1% of
gross domestic product (GDP) this year, down from around 1.7% last year. The real
gross domestic product (GDP) of Indonesia is projected to reach 5.2% in the second half year of 2006.
[cite web]
| last = |first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = IMF Executive Board Concludes 2006 Article IV Consultation and Fifth Post-Program Monitoring Discussions with Indonesia| work = Public Information Notice (PIN) No. 06/91| publisher = International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC| date = August 7, 2006| url = http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pn/2006/pn0691.htm| format = | doi = | accessdate = In the late 1990s, Indonesia suffered a drastic economic downturn followed by a significant but at times patchy and only partial recovery. This was largely due to the
financial crisis that struck much of east Asia at the time, but was exacerbated by perceptions of corruption at all levels and a perceived slow pace of economic reform.
[cite journal]
| last = Guerin| first =G.| authorlink =| coauthors =| title = Don't count on a Suharto accounting| journal = Asia Tims Online| volume =| issue = | pages = | publisher = Asia Times Online Ltd, Hong Kong| date = 23 May 2006| url =http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/HE23Ae01.html| doi = | id = | accessdate = Indonesia has received large amounts of economic aid from
bilateral,
multilateral and non-governmental organizations (
NGOs). Although Indonesia finished its
IMF program in December 2003, the country still receives bilateral aid through the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI) which reached $2.8 billion for 2004 and 2005. Another aid package, totaling $5 billion, was granted through the NGO for the post-Tsunami reconstruction in
Aceh. In total, Indonesia has received $43 billion in foreign aid.
[Indonesia - The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html]Demographics
Main|Demographics of
Indonesia's population statistics are difficult to estimate. In the 2000 national census, an initial population estimate of 203 million was recorded but the Indonesian government later revised the figure to 206 million.
[cite press release]
| title = 2000 Population Statistics| publisher = Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau | date = 30 June 2000| url = http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm | accessdate = The country's Central Statistics Bureau and
Statistics Indonesia quoted 222 million as the population for 2006,
[cite press release]
| publisher = Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau
| title = Tingkat Kemiskinan di Indonesia Tahun 2005-2006
| date = 1 September 2006
| url = http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf
| language = in Indonesian
| accessdate = The island of
Java has 130 million people and is the most populous island in the world.
[cite web]
| last = Calder
| first = Joshua
| title = Most Populous Islands
| publisher = World Island Information
| date = 3 May 2006
| url = http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm
| accessdate = 2006-09-26 Despite a considerably successful family planning program over the last four decades, Indonesia is expected to grow to a population of around 315 million in 2035 based on a current estimated annual growth rate of 1.25 per cent.
Ethnic groups
220px|left|thumb|Balinese boys in
Ubud]
Most Indonesians are ethnically
Malay, particularly in central and western Indonesia, while much of eastern Indonesia is
Melanesian in ethnic make up. There are, however, approximately 300 different native ethnicities in Indonesia and 742 different languages and dialects.
[cite web|publisher = Expat Web Site Association|title = An Overview of Indonesia|work = Living in Indonesia, A Site for Expatriates | url = http://www.expat.or.id/info/overview.html|accessdate = ][cite web | last = Merdekawaty | first = E. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = "Bahasa Indonesia" and languages of Indonesia | work = UNIBZ - Introduction to Linguistics | publisher = Free University of Bozen | date = 2006-07-06 | url = http://www.languagestudies.unibz.it/Bahasa%20Indonesia_Merdekawaty.pdf | format = | doi = | accessdate = ] Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas. An almost universally shared sense of Indonesian nationhood overlays this vast diversity and steadfastly maintained regional identities, providing a largely harmonious society. Indonesia, however, is not without social tensions with religious and ethnic differences triggering sometimes horrendous violence.
220px|right|thumb|[Minangkabau woman in traditional dress]
The
Transmigration program contributed to the spread of people from highly populated Java and
Madura to eastern Indonesia. Ethnic and religious differences between these immigrants and the local peoples have been blamed for numerous difficulties, sometimes culminating in bloody conflicts such as those between the Javanese and the
Maduranese,
[cite paper]
| author = Pudjiastuti, T. N.
| title = Migration & Conflict in Indonesia
| publisher = International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP), Paris
| date = 2002
| url = http://www.iussp.org/Bangkok2002/S15Pudjiastuti.pdf
| accessdate = 2006-09-17 the massacre of hundreds of Madurese by a local
Dayak community in
West Kalimantan,
[Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research http://www.preventconflict.org/portal/main/maps_kalimantan_conflict.php Conflict in Kalimantan]] Maluku,
[cite conference]
| first = J.W.
| last = Ajawaila
| authorlink =
| coauthors = M.J. Papilaya, Tonny D. Pariela, F. Nahusona, G. Leasa, T. Soumokil, James Lalaun, W. R. Sihasale
| title = Proposal Pemecahan Masalah Kerusuhan di Ambon
| publisher = Fica-Net
| date = 1999
| location = Ambon, Indonesia
| url = http://www.fica.org/hr/ambon/idRusuh1.html
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = Central Sulawesi,
[Kyoto University: Sulawesi Kaken Team & Center for Southeast Asian Studies http://sulawesi.cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp/lib/pdf/MRidwanAlimuddin.pdf Bugis Sailors] and parts of
Papua and
West Irian Jaya.
The
Chinese Indonesians are arguably the most influential ethnic minority in Indonesia. Although the Chinese make up 2% of the population, the majority of the country’s businesses and wealth is Chinese-controlled. This has caused considerable resentment
[cite web]
| last = Swasono | first = M. F. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Indigenous Cultures in the Development of Indonesia | work = INTEGRATION OF ENDOGENOUS CULTURAL DIMENSION INTO DEVELOPMENT | publisher = Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi | date = 1997 | url = http://ignca.nic.in/cd_05008.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = [cite web | last = Long | first = S. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Overseas Chinese | work = ]
| publisher = Prospect Magazine | date = 1998-04-09 | url = http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=4212 | format = | doi = | accessdate = despite the fact that it is only a small proportion of Chinese that hold great wealth, and there are now large numbers of prosperous, middle class non-Chinese. The
riots in Jakarta in 1998 in the weeks leading up to the resignation of long time president
Suharto were the most deadly recent expressions of these sentiments.
[cite web]
| last = Ocorandi
| first = M.
| title = An Analysis of the Implication of Suharto's resignation for Chinese Indonesians
| publisher = Worldwide HuaRen Peace Mission
| date = 28 May 1998
| url = http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54b/083.html
| accessdate = 2006-09-26 Languages
Main|Languages of
The official national language,
Indonesian (
Bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian), is universally taught in schools and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education and academia. Yet, in isolated areas even on the major islands it is not uncommon to find villagers who are not familiar with Indonesian.
[cite conference]
| first = Brian
| last = Crawford
| title = South of the Philippines, East of Kalimantan, West of the Malukus
| publisher = Conservation Strategies
| url = http://www.reefnet.org/issue6/constrat6.htm
| accessdate = 2006-10-05 [cite conference]
| first = Noel B.
| last = Salazar
| title = An Anthropologist's Report from Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| publisher = Penn Museum Research
| date = 2006-04-06
| url = http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/blogs/earthquake_blog.shtml
| accessdate = It was originally a
lingua franca for most of the region, including present-day
Malaysia (and is thus closely related to
Malay), accepted by the Dutch as the
de facto language for the colony, and declared the official language after independence.
Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred local languages (
bahasa daerah), often as their first language. Of these,
Javanese is the most widely-spoken language, as it is the language of the largest ethnic group.
[Indonesia - The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html]Religion
Main|Religion in
thumb|right|220px|Indonesia religions map
Although all 6 recognised religions are represented thoughout Indonesia, this maps shows the majority group for each areaAlthough the
Indonesian constitution guarantees religious freedom for all,
[cite web]
| title = The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia
| work = US-ASEAN
| url = http://www.us-asean.org/Indonesia/constitution.htm
| accessdate = 2006-10-02 the Government officially only recognises six religions, namely
Islam,
Protestantism,
Catholicism,
Hinduism,
Buddhism and
Confucianism.
[cite journal]
| last = Yang
| first = Heriyanto
| title = The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia
| journal = Religion
| volume = 10
| issue = 1
| pages = 8
| date = August 2005
| url = http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf
| accessdate = Indonesia is the world’s most populous Muslim-majority nation with almost 86% of Indonesians declared
Muslim according to the 2000
census.
[Indonesia - The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html] 11% of the population is
Christian (of which roughly two-thirds are
Protestant), 2%
Hindu, and 1%
Buddhist.
Before the arrival of the
Abrahamic faiths of Christianity and Islam to the
Malay Archipelago, the popular belief systems in the region were thoroughly influenced by
Indic religious philosophy through Hinduism and Buddhism. The influence of Hinduism and classical
India remain defining traits of
Indonesian culture; including the Indian concept of the god-king which still shapes Indonesian concepts of leadership; the use of
Sanskrit in courtly literature and adaptations of Indian mythology such as the
Ramayana and
Mahabharata. The vast majority of today’s
Indonesian Hindus are
Balinese who, similar to
abangan Muslims, follow a version of Hinduism
fused with existing cultural and religious beliefs and markedly distinct from orthodox Hinduism.
[cite web]
| last = Rogge
| first = Michael
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = JAVANESE MYSTICAL MOVEMENTS
| work =
| publisher =
| date = 2006-06-02
| url = http://www.xs4all.nl/~wichm/javmys1.html
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-10-03 The Sumatra-based
Sriwijaya kingdom of the 7th century AD was the center of Buddhism in Indonesia, however, most Buddhists in Indonesia today are ethnic
Chinese.
[cite web]
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Indonesia - Buddhism
| work = U.S. Library of Congress
| publisher = U.S. Library of Congress
| date =
| url = http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/40.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-10-15 220px|left|thumb|South East Asia">[Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta, reportedly the largest in
South East Asia]
Islam was first brought to northern Sumatra by
Arab traders in the 13th century and had become
Indonesia’s dominant religion by the 15th century.
[cite web]
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Indonesia - Islam
| work = U.S. Library of Congress
| publisher =
| date =
| url = http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/37.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-10-15 Although Islam was once mainly practiced in Java and Sumatra, emigration, largely from Java, has increased the number of Muslims living in
Bali,
Borneo,
Sulawesi,
Maluku, and
Papua. Like other religions in Indonesia, Islam has blended with local traditional beliefs such as those practiced by the
Abangan Muslims on Java
[Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp. 15-18, viewed 17 Sept 2006 ISBN 979-605-406-X] and with other belief systems in northern Sumatra and Kalimantan. Such
syncretic practises draw on distinctly Indonesian customs and typically differ from more
Orthodox Islam by favoring local customs over
Islamic law. One notable difference includes a generally greater level of freedom and higher social status for women.
[cite web]
| last = Fajrul Falaakh
| first = Mohammad
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Islam in Pluralist Indonesia: Challenges Ahead
| work =
| publisher = The Centre for Independent Studies
| date = 2002-12-11
| url = http://www.cis.org.au/Events/acton/acton02.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-10-15 The majority of Indonesian Muslims are generally accepting of differing religious practices and interpretations within their own faith.
At the same time, Muslims in Indonesia are typically devout; many have made the
pilgrimage to
Mecca, for example. More Orthodox Muslims who believe in a strict adherence to
Sharia make up a significantly smaller but growing percentage of the population; for example, the wearing of a
jilbab is becoming more common. There is also a small but outspoken hard-line
Islamist presence in Indonesia, including movements such as
Indonesian Mujahedeen Council. Most Indonesian Muslims are wary of these movements, some of which seek to supplant the Indonesian government and establish an Islamic state.
Catholicism was first brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries, and the
Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch
Calvinist and
Lutheran missionary efforts during its colonial time, although these efforts did not extend to Java or other predominantly Muslim areas. As with Islam and Hinduism, many Christian beliefs in Indonesia are
combined with animism and other traditional beliefs and cultural practices.
Culture
Main|Culture of
thumb|left|220px|The 9th century Borobudur in
Central Java">[Buddhist monument,
Borobudur in
Central Java]
Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups each with cultural differences which have shifted over the centuries and the concept of Indonesian culture is a fusion of this diversity. One example is the
Borobudur temple, which is a mix of
Hinduism and
Javanese culture, as it was built by a Javanese dynasty, the
Sailendra. Indonesia has also imported cultural aspects from
Arabic, Chinese, Malay and
European sources.
Art forms in Indonesia have been influenced by several cultures. Traditional
Javanese and
Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of
Hindu culture and mythology as does the Javanese and Balinese
wayang kulit shadow puppet shows, depicting several mythological events. Cloth such as
batik,
ikat and
songket are created across Indonesia with different areas having different styles and specialisations. The most dominant influences on
Indonesian architecture have traditionally been
Indian, however, European architecture has had a significant influence, particularly from the 19th century.
Pencak Silat is a unique martial art originating from the archipelago.
thumb|220px|A Wayang kulit shadow puppet performance as seen by the audience]
Indonesian music varies within cities and groups as people who live in the countryside would listen to a different kind of music than people in the city. Although rock was introduced in Indonesia by Indonesian
rock band, God Bless (see
Ian Antono),
[cite web|title=Ian Antono: Pelopor Gitar Hero Indonesia|last=Diaz (editor)|first=|url=http://www.gitaris.com/IanAntono.p|work=Biography of Ian id ] native Indonesian music is still preserved. Examples of Indonesian traditional music are
Gamelan and Keroncong. A more modern form of Indonesian native music is
Dangdut. The movie industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia,
[cite news]
| last = Kristianto
| first = JB
| title = Sepuluh Tahun Terakhir Perfilman Indonesia
| language = Indonesian
| publisher = Kompas
| date = 2005-07-02
| url = http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm
| accessdate = 2006-10-05 although it fell significantly in the early 1990s.
[cite web]
| title = Kondisi Perfilman di Indonesia
| work = Panton
| url = http://www.geocities.com/Paris/7229/film.htm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2006-10-05 For instance, in 1990, 115 local movies were produced while only 37 movies produced in 1993. However, as of the year 2000, the movie industry has improved gradually with a number of successful movies.
freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President
Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media and restricted foreign media.
[cite book]
| last = Shannon L.
| first = Smith
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Llyod Grayson J.
| title = Indonesia Today: Challenges of History
| publisher = Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Studies
| date = 2001
| location = Melbourne, Australia
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| id = ISBN 0-7425-1761-6 The
TV market includes 10 national commercial networks, which compete with public
TVRI. Some provinces also operate their own stations. Private
radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters can supply programmes. The radio dial is crowded, with scores of stations on the air in
Jakarta alone.
Internet use is increasing
Bisnis Indonesia reported in 2004 that there were 10 million users.
See also
References
General References
History* Beekman, E.M. (editor),
Fugitive Dreams: An anthology of Dutch colonial literature, 2000 Periplus Editions Ltd, Hong Kong, ISBN 9652-593-327-0 Please check ISBN|9652-593-327-0 (too
* Drakeley, S:
The History of Indonesia, Westport, Connecticut : Greenwood, 2005, 201 pages, ISBN 0-313-33114-6
* Friend, T
Indonesian Destinies,
http://www.hup.harvard.edu/ Harvard University Press, 2003, hardcover, 544 pages, ISBN 0-674-01137-6
* Milton, G.,
Nathaniel’s Nutmeg: How one man's courage changed the course of history, 2000 Sceptre; 400 pages, ISBN 0-340-69676-1
* Raffles, T.S.
The History of Java, Oxford Univ Pr (T) 1979 (originally published 1817), ISBN 0-19-580347-7
* Ricklefs, M.C,
A History of Modern Indonesia 2002 Stanford University Press; 3rd ed, 512 pages, ISBN 0-8047-4479-3
Politics & economics* Luwarso, L.(editor),
Jakarta Crackdown, 1997, Alliance of Independent Journalists, FORUM-ASIA, & ISAI, 318 pages.
* Schwarz, A. 1999,
A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia's Search for Stability, Westview Press; 2nd edition (October 1999), ISBN 0-8133-3650-3
* Llyod G, Smith S,
Indonesia Today, Lanham, Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2001, 343 pages, ISBN 0-7425-1761-6
Travel literature* Wallace, A.R.,
The Malay Archipelago, 1869, 515 pages. (re-released paperback edition by Periplus Editions Ltd, 2000, ISBN 962-593-645-9)
Society* Magnis-Suseno, F.,
Javanese Ethics and World View: The Javanese idea of the good life, 1981 (translated from the German 1997), PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, ISBN 979-605-406-X
* Pramoedya, A.,
Tales from Djakarta: caricatures of circumstances and their human beings, Equinox Publishing (Asia) PTE LTD, 2000 (first published 1963), Jakarta, ISBN 979-95898-1-9.
* Koch, C.,
The Year of Living Dangerously (fiction), 1978 Michael Joseph Ltd, London.
Arts & culture* Dawson, B., Gillow, J.,
The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia, 1994 Thames and Hudson Ltd, London, ISBN 0-500-34132-X
* Richter, A.,
Arts & Crafts of Indonesia, 1993 Thames and Hudson Ltd, London, 160 pages, ISBN 0-8118-0454-2.
* Wijaya, M.,
Architecture of Bali: A source book of traditional and modern forms, 2002 Archipelago Press, Singapore, 224 pages, ISBN 981-4068-25-X
Natural history* Whitten, T., Whitten, T,
Wild Indonesia: The wildlife & scenery of the Indonesian archipelago, 1992 New Holland Ltd, London, ISBN 1-85368-128-8
*
The Ecology of Indonesia Series (7 volumes), 1996. Periplus Editions.
Notes
External links
Government
*
http://www.indonesia.go.id/ National Portal of Republic of Indonesia id
*
http://www.presidensby.info/index.php/eng/index.html Presidential official website*
http://www.antara.co.id/en/ Antara - National News Agency*
http://www.bi.go.id/web/en Bank Indonesia - Indonesian Central Bank*
http://www.deplu.go.id Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia*
http://www.bps.go.id Statistics CenterOther
*
*
http://www.indonesia-house.org/ Indonesia House*
http://www.thejakartapost.com/ The Jakarta Post*
http://www.esamskriti.com/html/new_inside.asp?cat_name=history&cid=976&sid=161 Historic Ties India & Indonesia*
http://www.discover-indo.tierranet.com Discover Indonesia*
http://newton.uor.edu/Departments&Programs/AsianStudiesDept/indonesia-pol.html Indonesia: Politial & Social Issues. An Annontated Directory of Internet Resources (Anonymous Provider)
*
http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah.shtml History of Indonesia id
*
http://www.indonesiaheadlines.com/ Indonesia Headlines id
Southeast
Category:ASEAN member statesCategory:Bicontinental countries Category:Island countriesCategory:RepublicsCategory:Southeast Asian countriesCategory:D8 nationsCategory:G15 nationsLink
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