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History: International Phonetic Alphabet
International Phonetic Alphabet

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proper noun

  1. A standardized set of symbols for representing the sounds of human speech. See Wiktionary:International Phonetic Alphabet.


Encyclopedia: International Phonetic Alphabet, Talk:International Phonetic Alphabet, International_Phonetic_Alphabet, International Phonetic Alphabet for English, International_Phonetic_Alphabet_for_English, History of the IPA, Wikipedia:International Phonetic Alphabet, International Phonetic Alphabet for Dutch, International Phonetic Alphabet for Italian, Irish phonology

information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words|IPA chart for

Infobox WS
|name=International Phonetic Alphabet
|type=Alphabet
|languages=Reserved for phonetic transcription of any language
|time=1888 to the present
|fam1=Romic Alphabet
|fam2=Phonotypic Alphabet
|sample=IPA in IPA.png
|image_size=200px


The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)cite book|last=Laver|first=John|title=Principles of Phonetics|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|id=ISBN 0-521-45031-4 (hb); ISBN 0-521-45655-X (pb)|pages=561|quote=The acronym ‘IPA’ strictly refers…to the ‘International Phonetic Association’. But it is now such a common practice to use the acronym also to refer to the alphabet itself (from the phrase ‘International Phonetic Alphabet’) that resistance seems pedantic. Context usually serves to disambiguate the two is a system of phonetic notation devised by linguists. It is intended to provide a standardized, accurate and unique way of representing the sounds of any spoken language,cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|authorlink=International Phonetic Association|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|id=ISBN 0-521-65236-7 (hb); ISBN 0-521-63751-1 and is used, often on a day-to-day basis, by linguists, speech pathologists and therapists, foreign language teachers, lexicographers and translators.cite book|last=MacMahon|first=Michael K. C.|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor=P. T. Daniels and W. Bright (eds.)|title=The World’s Writing Systems|pages=821–846|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|location=New York|id=ISBN In its unextended form (as of 2005) it has approximately 107 base symbols and 55 modifiers.cite web|author=International Phonetic Association|authorlink=International Phonetic Association|date=2006-05-05|url=http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/images/ipachart.gif|title=The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to

The symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet are divided into three categories: letters, diacritics, and suprasegmentals (symbols that indicate such things as the tone and inflection of a spoken utterance). These categories are then divided into smaller sections. For example, letters are divided into vowels and consonants, and diacritics and suprasegmentals are divided according to whether they indicate articulation, phonation, tone, intonation, or stress. From time to time, symbols are added, removed, and modified by the International Phonetic Association.

Although the IPA is meant to represent only those qualities of speech that are relevant to language itself (such as tongue position, manner of articulation, and the separation and accentuation of words and syllables), an extended set of symbols called Extended IPA has been created by phonologists to record qualities of speech that have no direct effect on meaning (such as tooth-gnashing, lisping, and sounds made by people with a cleft).

History


main|History of the
thumb|right|300px|A diagram explaining the International Phonetic Alphabet.
The development of the IPA began in 1886, when a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would come to be known as the International Phonetic Association. Two years after its formation, the International Phonetic Association released the first official version of the IPA, which was based upon the Romic alphabet of Henry Sweet,cite journal|first = Henry|last = Sweet|authorlink = Henry Sweet|year = 1880–1881|title = Sound notation|journal = Transactions of the Philological Society|pages = cite book|last=Sweet|first=Henry|authorlink=Henry Sweet|editor=Henderson, Eugénie J. A. (ed.)|title=The indispensable foundation: A selection from the writings of Henry Sweet|year=1971|series=Language and language learning|volume=28|location=London|publisher=Oxford University which in turn was formed from the Phonotypic Alphabet of Isaac Pitman and Alexander John Ellis.cite book|last=Kelly|first=John|year=1981|chapter=The 1847 alphabet: An episode of phonotypy|editor=R. E. Asher and E. J. A. Henderson (eds.)|title=Towards a history of phonetics|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|id=ISBN Since its creation, the organization of vowels and consonants has largely remained the same.

However, the alphabet itself has undergone a few revisions. The IPA Kiel Convention in 1989 made many changes to the earlier 1932 version. A minor revision took place in 1993, with the addition of the mid-central vowel IPA|cite book |last=Pullum|first=Geoffrey K.|authorlink=Geoffrey Pullum|coauthors=William Allen Ladusaw | title=Phonetic Symbol Guide | publisher=University of Chicago Press | pages=152 & 209 | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-226-68535-7 and the alphabet was last revised in May 2005, when a symbol for the labiodental flap was added.cite web
|url = http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/flap.htm
|title = Approval of New IPA Sound: The Labiodental Flap
|accessdate = 2006-09-17
|last = Nicolaidis
|first = Katerina
|year = 2005
|month = September
|publisher = International Phonetic Association


Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories, and modifying typefaces.

Extensions of the alphabet are relatively recent; the Extended IPA was first created in 1991 and revised to 1997. Also, the VoQS (Voice Quality Symbols) were proposed in 1995 to provide a system for more detailed transcription of voice production.cite journal
|last=Ball
|first=Martin J.
|coauthors=Esling, John H. & Dickson, B. Craig
|year=1995
|title=The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality
|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet
|volume=25
|issue=2


Description



The general principle of the IPA is to provide one symbol for each sound (or speech segment). This means that the IPA does not use letter combinations unless the sound being represented can be regarded as a sequence of two or more sounds. (In contrast, English sometimes uses combinations of two letters to represent single sounds, such as the digraphs sh and th for the sounds IPA|letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them,The famous exception to this is the open front rounded vowel IPA|open-mid front rounded vowel IPA| and it does not use letters that represent multiple sounds, the way represents the double consonant IPA|c in English.

Selectiveness


The IPA is an example of what is known to linguists as a selective phonetic alphabet. This means that it usually does not have separate symbols for two sounds if there does not exist a language in which these two sounds are contrasted with one another. In other words, it aims to provide a separate symbol for every contrastive (or phonemic) sound occurring in human language.

For instance, flaps and taps are two different kinds of articulation, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an alveolar flap and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated symbols. Instead, it provides a single symbol (in this case, IPA|

Letterforms


The symbols chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet.cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|authorlink=International Phonetic Association|year=1949|title=The principles of the International Phonetic Association, being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages|location=London|publisher=University College, Department of Phonetics|quote=The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognise makeshift letters; It recognises only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other For this reason, most symbols are either Latin or Greek letters, or modifications thereof. However, there are symbols that are neither: for example, the symbol denoting the glottal stop IPA|question mark, and was originally an apostrophe.The symbol was changed because the apostrophe did not seem to have sufficient “visual Technically, the symbol IPA|Qo”, an abbreviation of the Latin word quæstio, “question”. Indeed, some symbols, such as that of the pharyngeal fricative IPA|glyphs in other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic letter rtl-lang|ar|<`ain).

Despite its preference for letters that harmonize with the Latin alphabet, the International Phonetic Association has occasionally admitted symbols that seem to have nothing to do with Roman letters. For example, prior to 1989, the IPA symbols for click consonants were IPA|ʘ​">​ʇ​">​ʗ​">​ʖ​">​Khoisanists (who use symbols for click consonants the most frequently). As a result, they were replaced by the more iconic symbols IPA|ʘ​">​ǀ​">​ǃ​">​ǂ​">​ǁ​">​1989 convention of the International Phonetic Association in Kiel.Laver, John. op. cit., 174–175

Symbols and sounds



The sound-values of most consonants taken from the Latin alphabet correspond roughly to those of French, and are also close to those of most other European languages (including English): these consonants are IPA|:{| class="wikitable"
! IPA || as pronounced in
|-
| align="center" valign="top" | IPA|IAST transliteration of Sanskrit, Irish (in some contexts)
|-
| align="center" valign="top" | IPA|Germanic languages
|-
| align="center" valign="top" | IPA|Germanic and Slavic languages
|-
| align="center" valign="top" | IPA|Quechua (and Arabic transliteration)
|-
| align="center" valign="top" | IPA|Italian and Spanish
|-
| align="center" valign="top" | IPA||-
| align="center" valign="top" | IPA|Russian <х> in the Cyrillic alphabet
|-
| align="center" valign="top" | IPA|German, Old English and the Scandinavian languages;
Ancient Greek <Υ> (upsilon);
|}

The vowels from the Latin alphabet (IPA|vowels of Spanish and are similar to those of Italian. IPA|piece, IPA|rule, etc.

Symbols derived from the Greek alphabet include IPA|only ones that closely correspond to the Greek letters they are derived from are IPA|beta-like, epsilon-like, phi-like, and chi-like sounds, but do not correspond to them exactly. IPA|u-like sound, but is otherwise fairly distant from the original Greek letter <υ>, upsilon.

The sound-values of modifications of Latin letters can usually be derived from those of the original letters. For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex consonants; and small capital letters usually represent uvular consonants. Apart from the fact that certain kinds of modification to the shape of a letter correspond to certain kinds of modification to the sound represented, there is no way to deduce the sound represented by a symbol from the shape of the symbol (unlike in Visible Speech).

Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetic values or secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for suprasegmental features such as stress and tone that are often employed.

Usage


further|Phonetic

Although at first the IPA may seem too precise to offer much choice in how to transcribe speech, there is in fact a variety of ways to do so. At one end of the spectrum is narrow transcription, in which every feature of every sound is specified, down to the dialect and speech habits of the individual speaker. At the other end of the spectrum is broad transcription, which attempts to provide just enough detail to allow for variations among different speakers’ pronunciation of the same utterance. In either case, the transcription is generally enclosed in brackets.

One kind of broad transcription is known as phonemic transcription, and is usually enclosed in slashes. In this kind of transcription, the same letter is used for two sounds if the particular language being transcribed does not make a distinction between them. (This is a kind of “local selectiveness”.) For example, the American pronunciation of the English word “little” may be transcribed using the IPA as (phonemically) or IPA|

Use in dictionaries



Many British English dictionaries, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the http://dictionary.cambridge.org/ Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words. However, most American (and some British) volumes use conventions designed to be more intuitive for readers yet unfamiliar with the IPA. For example, the pronunciation-representation systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webstercite book |editor= Michael Agnes|title= Webster's New World College Dictionary|year= 1999|publisher= Macmillan USA|location= New York, NY|id= ISBN 0-02-863119-6|pages= ) use “y” for IPA IPA|ü, and IPA|grass hut.)

One of the benefits of using an alternative to the IPA is the ability to use a single symbol for a sound pronounced differently in different dialects. For example, the American Heritage Dictionary uses ŏ for the vowel in cot http://www.bartleby.com/61/46/C0674600.html (kŏt) but ô for the one in caught http://www.bartleby.com/61/14/C0171400.html (kôt).cite encyclopedia|editor=Pickett, Joseph P. et al|encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|title=Pronunciation Key|url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/12.html|accessdate=2006-09-19|edition=4th ed.|year=2000|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|id=ISBN American regional dialects without the caught-cot merger generally pronounce cŏt like IPA IPA|open central unrounded vowel) and côt like IPA IPA|open back rounded vowel), whereas those with the merger pronounce the vowels ŏ and ô the same way (for example, like IPA IPA|Boston dialect). Using one symbol for the vowel in cot (instead of having different symbols for different pronunciations of the o) enables the dictionary to provide meaningful pronunciations for speakers of most dialects of English.

The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in other countries and languages. Mass-market Czech multilingual dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the Czech language. cite book |last= Fronek|first= J.|title= Velký anglicko-český slovník|origyear= 2006|publisher= Leda|location= Praha|language= Czech|id= ISBN 80-7335-022-X|quote = In accordace with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are

Educational initiative


There is some interest in using native speakers to produce sound and video files of sufficient breadth to completely demonstrate all the speech sounds covered by the IPA. Such a project would encompass a large subset of the world's languages. This would aid linguistic and anthropologic research, as well as help teach language learning. Specifically, the development of a reference standard using the IPA (mirroring the idea of the Rosetta Stone) could be used in order to preserve intact examples of the sounds of human language. For education, the IPA can help standardize resources which prepare students and very young children (ages 6-36 months) for universal language acquisition through familiarization and subsequent imitation of the breadth of human speech sounds.cite journal | title=Information Development News | journal=Information Development | date=2004 | volume=20 | issue=4 | page=233-238 | accessdate=2006-11-07 | language=English | id=DOI: 10.1177/0266666904049421 | url =http://idv.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/20/4/233.pdf format = PDF

Letters



The International Phonetic Alphabet divides its symbols into three categories: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.

Consonants (pulmonic)



A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis or oral cavity and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in the English language fall into this category.cite book|last= Fromkin|first= Victoria|authorlink=Victoria Fromkin|coauthors=Rodman, Robert|title= An Introduction to Language|year= 1998|publisher= Harcourt Brace College Publishers|location= Fort Worth, TX|edition= 6th edition|origyear=

The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! colspan=17 | View this table as an image.
|-
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| style="font-size: 90%;" | Place of articulation →
! colspan=2 | Labial
! colspan=4 | Coronal
! colspan=4 | Dorsal
! colspan=4 | Radical
! colspan=2 | (none)
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em"
| style="font-size: 90%;" | Manner of articulation ↓
! style="width: 4em;" | Bi­la­bial
! style="width: 4em;" | La­bio‐
den­tal
! style="width: 4em;" | Den­tal
! style="width: 4em;" | Al­veo­lar
! style="width: 4em;" | Post‐
al­veo­lar
! style="width: 4em;" | Re­tro‐
flex
! style="width: 4em;" | Pa­la­tal
! style="width: 4em;" | Ve­lar
! colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Uvu­lar
! colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Pha­ryn‐
geal
! colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Epi‐
glot­tal
! colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Glot­tal
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Nasal
| class="nounderlines" |    
| class="nounderlines" |    
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" |   
| class="nounderlines" |    
| class="nounderlines" |   
| class="nounderlines" |    
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |    
| class="nounderlines" colspan="6" style="background:#ccc" |  
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Plosive
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" | * *
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" |
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" |
| style="width: 1em; background:#ccc" |  
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Fricative
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" |
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" |
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" |
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" |
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" |
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" |
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" |
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Approx­imant
| class="nounderlines" |    
| class="nounderlines" |    
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" |    
| class="nounderlines" |    
| class="nounderlines" |    
| class="nounderlines" |    
|  
|  
|  
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Trill
| class="nounderlines" |    
|
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" |    
| class="nounderlines" |    
|
| class="nounderlines" style="background:#ccc" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |    
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |    *
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Tap or Flap
| class="nounderlines" |   †
| class="nounderlines" |    †
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" |   
| class="nounderlines" |    
|  
| class="nounderlines" style="background:#ccc" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |  
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |    *
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral Fricative
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" |
| class="nounderlines" | *   
| class="nounderlines" | *   
| class="nounderlines" | *   
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |  
| class="nounderlines" colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" |  
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral Approx­imant
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" |    
| class="nounderlines" |    
| class="nounderlines" |    
| class="nounderlines" |    
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |  
| class="nounderlines" colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" |
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral Flap
| class="nounderlines" colspan=2 style="background:#ccc" |  
| class="nounderlines" colspan=3 |    
| class="nounderlines" |    *
| class="nounderlines" |    *
| class="nounderlines" |    *
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" |  
| class="nounderlines" colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" |  
|}

Notes:
* Asterisks (*) mark reported sounds that do not (yet) have official IPA symbols. See the articles for ad hoc symbols found in the literature.
* Daggers (†) mark IPA symbols that do not yet have official Unicode support. Since May 2005, this is the case of the labiodental flap, symbolized by a right-hook v: 20px|Labiodental flap http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/N2945.pdf. In the meantime the similarly shaped izhitsa ) is used here.
* In rows where some symbols appear in pairs (the obstruents), the symbol to the right represents a voiced consonant (except breathy-voiced IPA|sonorants), the single symbol represents a voiced consonant.
* Although there is a single symbol for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives, when dealing with a particular language, the symbols are treated as specifically alveolar, post-alveolar, etc., as appropriate for that language.
* Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
* The symbols IPA|ʁ, ʕ, represent either voiced fricatives or approximants.
* It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives IPA|ʃ , IPA|ɕ , and IPA|ʂ .


Coarticulation


Coarticulated consonants are sounds in which two individual consonants are pronounced at the same time. In English, the w in “went” is a coarticulated consonant, as the lips are rounded while the back of the tongue is raised simultaneously. Other languages, such as French and Swedish, have different coarticulated consonants.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2 | View this table as an image
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" class="nounderlines"|
| Voiceless labialized velar approximant
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" class="nounderlines" |
| Voiced labialized velar approximant
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" class="nounderlines" |
| Voiced labialized palatal approximant
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" class="nounderlines" |
| Voiceless palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" class="nounderlines" |
| Voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" class="nounderlines" |
| Voiceless "palatal-velar" fricative
|}

Notes:
*IPA|cite book|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|coauthors=Maddieson, Ian|year=1996|title=The sounds of the world's languages|location=Oxford|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|pages=329–330|quote=The most well-known case of a possible multiply-articulated fricative is the Swedish segment that has been described as a doubly-articulated voiceless palato-alveolar-velar fricative, i.e., IPA| However, this analysis is disputed. See voiceless palatal-velar fricative for discussion.

Affricates and double articulation


Affricates and doubly articulated stops are represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar, either above or below the symbols. The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage, due to the great number of ligatures that would be required to represent all affricates this way. A third affricate transcription sometimes seen uses the superscript notation for a consonant release, for example for , paralleling ~ . The symbols for the palatal plosives, IPA|t​͡ʃ or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=3 | View this table as an image.
|-
! Tie bar
! Ligature
! Description
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| voiceless alveolar affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| voiced alveolar affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| voiceless postalveolar affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| voiced postalveolar affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| voiced alveolo-palatal affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –
| voiceless alveolar lateral affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –
| voiceless labial-velar plosive
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –
| voiced labial-velar plosive
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –
| labial-velar nasal stop
|}

Note:
* If your browser uses Arial Unicode MS to display IPA characters, the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font: IPA|ts͡, tʃ͡, tɕ͡, dz͡, dʒ͡, dʑ͡, tɬ͡, kp͡, ɡb͡, .

Consonants (non-pulmonic)


Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds which are made without the lungs. These include clicks (found in the Khoisan languages of Africa) and implosives (found in languages such as Swahili).

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=6 | View this table as an image
|- valign=top
! colspan="2" | Click releases
! colspan="2" | Implosives
! colspan="2" | Ejectives
|- valign=top class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" |
| Bilabial
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" |
| Bilabial
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" |
| For example:
|- valign=top class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Laminal alveolar ("dental")
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Alveolar
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Bilabial
|- valign=top class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Apical (post-) alveolar ("retroflex")
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Palatal
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Alveolar
|- valign=top class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Laminal postalveolar ("palatal")
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Velar
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Velar
|- valign=top class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Lateral coronal ("lateral")
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Uvular
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Alveolar fricative
|}

Notes:
* All clicks are doubly articulated and require two symbols: a velar or uvular stop, plus a symbol for the anterior release: IPA|k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, etc., or IPA|ǂ͡k, ǂ͡ɡ, ǂ͡ŋ, ǂ͡q, ǂ͡ɢ, . When the dorsal articulation is omitted, a IPA|* Symbols for the voiceless implosives IPA|ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: IPA|ɓ̥, , etc.
* Although not confirmed from any language, and therefore not "explicitly recognized" by the IPA, a retroflex implosive, Unicode|, is supported in the Unicode Phonetic Extensions Supplement, added in version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, or can be created as a composite IPA|* The ejective symbol is often seen for glottalized but pulmonic sonorants, such as IPA|mʼ, lʼ, wʼ, m̰, l̰, w̰,

Vowels



View the vowel chart as an image
CSS IPA vowel
Notes:
*Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel, as does IPA|*Open IPA|*IPA|*IPA|

Diacritics



Diacritics are small markings which are placed around the IPA letter in order to show a certain alteration in the letter's pronunciation. Sub-diacritics (markings normally placed below a letter or symbol) may be placed above a symbol with a descender (informally called a tail), i.e. .

The dotless i, <ı>, is used when the dot would interfere with the diacritic. Other IPA symbols may appear as diacritics to represent phonetic detail: (fricative release), (breathy voice), (glottal onset), (epenthetic schwa), (diphthongization). More advanced diacritcs were developed in the Extended IPA for more specific pronunciation encoding.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=4|View the diacritic table as an image
|-
! colspan=4|Syllabicity diacritics
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|ɹ̩
| Syllabic
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|e̯
| Non-syllabic
|-
! colspan=4|Consonant-release diacritics
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|tʰ
| Aspirated
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| No audible release
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Nasal release
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Lateral release
|-
! colspan=4|Phonation diacritics
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" | IPA|n̥
| Voiceless
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|s̬
| Voiced
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" | IPA|b̤
| Breathy voiced
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|b̰
| Creaky voiced
|-
! colspan=4|Articulation diacritics
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" | IPA|t̪
| Dental
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|t̼
| Linguolabial
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|t̺
| Apical
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|t̻
| Laminal
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|u̟
| Advanced
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|i̠
| Retracted
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|ë
| Centralized
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|e̽
| Mid-centralized
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|e̝ ɹ̝
| colspan=3 | Raised = voiced alveolar nonsibilant fricative)
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|e̞ β̞
| colspan=3 | Lowered = bilabial approximant)
|-
! colspan=4|Co-articulation diacritics
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|ɔ̹
| More rounded
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|ɔ̜
| Less rounded
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|tʷ
| Labialized
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|tʲ
| Palatalized
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|tˠ
| Velarized
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|tˁ
| Pharyngealized
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan=3 | Velarized or pharyngealized
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|e̘
| Advanced tongue root
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|e̙
| Retracted tongue root
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|ẽ
| Nasalized
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|ɚ
| Rhoticity
|}

Notes:
#Some linguists restrict this breathy-voice diacritic to sonorants, and transcribe obstruents as .
#With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is also voiced. Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice.

The state of the glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis phonation are:

{|
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | IPA|| voiceless
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|| breathy voice, also called murmured
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|| slack voice
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|| modal voice
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|| stiff voice
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|| creaky voice
|-
|style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|| glottal closure
|}

Suprasegmentals


Further|Prosody
These symbols describe the suprasegmental features of a language, collectively known as a language's prosody. These symbols show the length, stress, pitch, and rhythm of a language. Many suprasegmentals are often reserved for very specific transcriptions intended to convey the differences in speech between individuals or dialects. They are usually used to indicate a word's stress and length of vowels and consonants. The IPA also has a series of suprasegmentals which are used to indicate intonation in language. Certain languages, such as Japanese and Norwegian, possess intonation. IPA allows for the use of either tone diacritics or tone letters to indicate tones. These are used in tonal languages such as Chinese.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=4|View this table as an image
|-
! colspan=4|Length, stress, and rhythm
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Primary stress
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Secondary stress
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Long (long vowel or
geminate consonant)
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Half-long
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Extra-short
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Syllable break
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan=3 | Linking (absence of a break)
|-
! colspan=4|Intonation
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Minor (foot) break
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Major (intonation) break
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Global rise
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Global fall
|-
! colspan=4|Tones
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" | IPA|e̋ or
| Extra high
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|é or
| High
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|ē or
| Mid
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | IPA|è or
| Low
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | or
| Extra low
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Rise
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Fall
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| Downstep
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |
| colspan=3 | Upstep
|}

Obsolete symbols, nonstandard symbols, and capital variants



main article|Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the
The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is which has been standardised to . Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: for is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ has been dropped; they can now be written IPA|ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̥ ɠ̥ respectively.

There are also unsupported or ad hoc symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as (the "tl" in "Nahuatl").

While the IPA does not itself have a set of capital letters, languages have adopted symbols from the IPA as part of their orthographies, and in such cases they have invented capital variants of these. This is especially common in Africa. An example is Kabye of northern Togo, which has unicode|Ɔ Ɛ Ŋ Ɣ (capital ). Other IPA-inspired capitals supported by Unicode are unicode|Ɓ/Ƃ Ƈ Ɗ/Ƌ Ə/Ǝ Ɠ Ħ Ɯ Ɲ Ɵ Ʈ Ʊ Ʋ .

Extended IPA



main article|Extended
The Extended IPA is a new group of symbols for the IPA whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe disordered speech. However, linguists have used it to designate a number of unique sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips. The Extended IPA has also been used to record certain peculiarities in an individual's voice, such as whispers, nasalized voicing, and whispering.

Sounds that have no symbols in the IPA



The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ad hoc symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the lateral flaps and voiceless lateral fricatives, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones. For example, the Spanish bilabial approximant is commonly written as a lowered fricative, IPA|ɭ˔ ʎ̝ . A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap symbol and the advanced diacritic, IPA|ɟ˘ ɢ˘ . A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted IPA|
The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering. For example, the unrounded equivalent of IPA|e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ , while centered IPA|ɪ̈ ʊ̈ and compressed vowels, which would require a dedicated diacritic.

Symbol names


main article|Naming conventions of the International Phonetic
An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent since there is not a one-to-one correspondence between symbol and sound in broad transcription. Official names are described in the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, although the name of a symbol may vary in context. The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E".

The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are used for unmodified symbols. In Unicode, some of the symbols of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the symbols from the Greek section. Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as , may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol, and sometimes based on the sound that it represents.

For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA uses the name of the symbol from a certain language, for example, is acute, based on the name of the symbol in English and French. In non-traditional diacritics, the IPA often names a symbol according to an object it resembles, as is called bridge.

Other phonetic notation


See also|Unicode and

The IPA is not the only phonetic transcription system in use. The other common Latin-based system is the Americanist phonetic notation, devised for representing American languages, but used by some US linguists as an alternative to the IPA. There are also sets of symbols specific to Slavic, Indic, Finno-Ugric, and Caucasian linguistics, as well as other regional specialties. The differences between these alphabets and IPA are relatively small, although often the special characters of the IPA are abandoned in favour of diacritics or digraphs.

Other alphabets, such as Hangul, may have their own phonetic extensions. There also exist featural phonetic transcription systems, such as Alexander Melville Bell's Visible Speech and its derivatives.

There is an extended version of the IPA for disordered speech (extIPA), and another set of symbols used for voice quality (VoQS). There are also many personal or idiosyncratic extensions, such as Luciano Canepari's canIPA.

Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the ASCII character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include Kirshenbaum, SAMPA, and X-SAMPA. The usage of mapping systems has been declining as technical support for Unicode spreads.

See also



Commons|International Phonetic Alphabet|International Phonetic
* International Phonetic Alphabet for English explains those IPA symbols used to represent the phonemes of English.
* International Phonetic Alphabet for Dutch explains those IPA symbols used to represent the phonemes of Dutch.
* TIPA provides IPA support for LaTeX.
* SAMPA, X-SAMPA and Kirshenbaum are other methods of mapping IPA designations into ASCII.
* List of phonetics topics
* Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA)
* Unicode Phonetic Symbols

References



* Ball, Martin J.; Esling, John H.; & Dickson, B. Craig. (1995). The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality. Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet, 25 (2), 71-80.
*Canepari, Luciano. (2005a). "A Handbook of Phonetics: ‹Natural› Phonetics." München: Lincom Europa, pp. 518. 3-8958-480-3 (too (hb).
*Canepari, Luciano. (2005b) "A Handbook of Pronunciation: English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, Japanese, Esperanto." München: Lincom Europa, pp. 436. https://ssl.kundenserver.de/s83009615.einsundeinsshop.de/sess/utn1541a7584d7471b/shopdata/0002_New+titles/product_details.shopscript ISBN 3-89586-481-1 (hb).
* Duckworth, M.; Allen, G.; Hardcastle, W.; & Ball, M. J. (1990). Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 4, 273-280.
* Hill, Kenneth C. (1988). Review of Phonetic symbol guide by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw. Language, 64 (1), 143-144.
* International Phonetic Association. (1989). Report on the 1989 Kiel convention. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 19 (2), 67-80.
* Jones, Daniel. (1989). English pronouncing dictionary (14 ed.). London: Dent.
* Ladefoged, Peter. (1990). The revised International Phonetic Alphabet. Language, 66 (3), 550-552.
* Ladefoged, Peter; & Halle, Morris. (1988). Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Language, 64 (3), 577-582.
* Pullum, Geoffrey K.; & Laduslaw, William A. (1986). Phonetic symbol guide. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-68532-2.


Notes






External links



General


*http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipa.html Official home page of the IPA
*http://cla.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/phon/learnipa.html Learning the IPA for English, (Standard American English)
*http://french.about.com/library/pronunciation/bl-ipa-french.htm French IPA characters
*http://www.omniglot.com/writing/ipa.htm Information on IPA by Omniglot

Free IPA font downloads


*http://scripts.sil.org/FontDownloadsGentium Gentium, a professionally designed international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman and italic typefaces that includes the IPA, but not yet tone letters or the new labiodental flap.
*http://scripts.sil.org/CharisSILfont Charis SIL, a very complete international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman, italic, and bold typefaces that includes tone letters and pre-composed tone diacritics on IPA vowels, the new labiodental flap, and many non-standard phonetic symbols. Based on Bitstream Charter, this font suffers from extremely bad hinting when rendered by Freetype on Linux.
*http://scripts.sil.org/DoulosSILfont Doulos SIL, a Times/Times New Roman style font. It contains the same characters as Charis SIL, but only in a single face, roman.
*http://webmasterei.com/en/ipa/index SIL93 the legacy SIL IPA93 fonts (Manuscript and Sophia) recoded in Unicode.
*DejaVu fonts, an open source font family derived from the Bitstream Vera fonts.
*TIhttp://tug.ctan.org/cgi-bin/ctanPackageInformation.py?id=tipa PA, a font and system for entering IPA phonetic transcriptions in LaTeX documents.

Keyboards


*http://www.linguiste.org/phonetics/ipa/chart/keyboard/ Online keyboard
*http://webmasterei.com/en/tools/ipa Online keyboard and machine pronunciation
*http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=ipa-sil_keyboard Downloadable IPA-SIL keyboard layout for Mac OS X for Unicode IPA input
*http://www.rejc2.co.uk/ipakeyboard/ Downloadable IPA keyboard layout for Microsoft Windows for Unicode IPA input
*http://wikisophia.org/wiki/Wikitex#Tipa WikiTeX supports editing IPA sequences directly in Wiki articles.

Sound files


*http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/ Peter Ladefoged's Course in Phonetics (with sound files)
*http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/course/chapter1/chapter1.html Pronounceable IPA chart
*http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/vowels/contents.html An introduction to the sounds of languages
*http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/ipa-lab.htm IPA Lab Chart with sound files at University of Victoria. (Works with QuickTime.)
*http://www.paulmeier.com/ipa/charts.html Flash version of IPA charts, with sound samples
*http://www.ling.hf.ntnu.no/ipa/full/ Another set of IPA sound samples

Charts


*http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/fullchart.html IPA chart source
*http://www.linguiste.org/phonetics/ipa/chart/ IPA Chart in Unicode and XHTML/CSS
*http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPANumberChart96.pdf IPA number chart, at University of Victoria.

Unicode


*http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf Unicode chart for main IPA letters
*http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U02B0.pdf Unicode chart for IPA modifier letters
*http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0300.pdf Unicode chart including IPA diacritics
*http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-unicode.htm International Phonetic Alphabet in Unicode
*http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/international/bylanguage/ipachart.html Unicode-HTML codes for IPA symbols: Tables of symbol names and HTML codes at PennState.

Personal extensions of the IPA


*http://venus.unive.it/canipa/ canIPA : Luciano Canepari's system (500 base symbols)




Technical note


Most IPA symbols are not included in Times New Roman, the default font for Latin scripts in Internet Explorer for Windows. To properly view IPA symbols in that browser, you must set it to use a font which includes the IPA extensions characters. Such fonts include Lucida Sans Unicode, which comes with Windows XP; Gentium, Charis (SIL), Doulos (SIL), DejaVu Sans, or TITUS Cyberbit, which are freely available; or Arial Unicode MS, which comes with Microsoft Office. Alternatively, the style sheet could try using Unicode-range specifications to note where Times font does not have glyphs for IPA, and thus hopefully force the browser to check further down the list of fonts.

On this page, we have forced the browser to use such a font, so it should appear correctly, but this hasn't yet been done to all the other pages containing IPA. This also applies to other pages using special symbols. Bear this in mind if you see error symbols such as "蚟" in articles.

Special symbols should display properly without further configuration with Mozilla Firefox, Konqueror, Opera, Safari and most other recent browsers.



Category:Unicode

Link

als:IPA
ar:ألفبائية صوتية دولية
bn:আন্তর্জাতিক ধ্বনিমূলক বর্ণমালা
zh-min-nan:Kok-chè Im-phiau
br:Lizherenneg Fonetikel Etrebroadel
bg:Международна фонетична азбука
ca:Alfabet fonètic internacional
cs:Mezinárodní fonetická abeceda
cv:Тĕнче Фонетикăллă Алфавичĕ
da:Det internationale fonetiske alfabet
de:Internationales Phonetisches Alphabet
et:IPA
el:Διεθνές Φωνητικό Αλφάβητο
es:Alfabeto Fonético Internacional
eo:Internacia Fonetika Alfabeto
eu:Nazioarteko Alfabeto Fonetikoa
fr:Alphabet phonétique international
gd:Aibidil Eadar-nàiseanta Fogharach
gl:Alfabeto Fonético Internacional
ko:국제 음성 기호
hy:Միջազգային Հնչյունական Այբուբեն
hi:अंतर्राष्ट्रीय ध्वन्यात्मक लिपि
is:Alþjóðlega hljóðstafrófið
it:Alfabeto fonetico internazionale
he:אלפבית פונטי בינלאומי
kg:API
hu:IPA
nl:Internationaal Fonetisch Alfabet
ja:国際音声記号
no:Det internasjonale fonetiske alfabetet
nn:Det internasjonale fonetiske alfabetet
nrm:API
pl:Międzynarodowy alfabet fonetyczny
pt:Alfabeto fonético internacional
ksh:Ingernazzjonaal Foneetisch Allfabeet
ro:Alfabetul Fonetic Internaţional
ru:Международный фонетический алфавит
sq:Alfabeti Fonetik Ndërkombëtar
sk:Medzinárodná fonetická abeceda
fi:Kansainvälinen foneettinen aakkosto
sv:Internationella fonetiska alfabetet
tt:Xalıqara Yañğırış Älifbası
th:สัทอักษรสากล
vi:IPA
tr:Uluslararası Fonetik Alfabesi
uk:Міжнародний фонетичний алфавіт
wa:Alfabet fonetike eternåcionå
zh-yue:萬國音標
zh:國際音標

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This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wiktionary article "International Phonetic Alphabet" . It uses material from the Wikipedia article "International Phonetic Alphabet" .